Association of Plasma Vitamins and Carotenoids, DNA Methylation of LCAT, and Risk of Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

Dysregulation of lipid metabolism has been implicated in age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of blindness among the elderly. Lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) is an important enzyme responsible for lipid metabolism, which could be regulated by DNA methylation during the development of various age-related diseases. This study aimed to assess the association between LCAT DNA methylation and the risk of AMD, and to examine whether plasma vitamin and carotenoid concentrations modified this association. A total of 126 cases of AMD and 174 controls were included in the present analysis. LCAT DNA methylation was detected by quantitative real-time methylation-1specific PCR (qMSP). Circulating vitamins and carotenoids were measured using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). DNA methylation of LCAT was significantly higher in patients with AMD than those in the control subjects. After multivariable adjustment, participants in the highest tertile of LCAT DNA methylation had a 5.37-fold higher risk (95% CI: 2.56, 11.28) of AMD compared with those in the lowest tertile. Each standard deviation (SD) increment of LCAT DNA methylation was associated with a 2.23-fold (95% CI: 1.58, 3.13) increased risk of AMD. There was a J-shaped association between LCAT DNA methylation and AMD risk (Pnon-linearity = 0.03). Higher concentrations of plasma retinol and ß-cryptoxanthin were significantly associated with decreased levels of LCAT DNA methylation, with the multivariate-adjusted ß coefficient being -0.05 (95% CI: -0.08, -0.01) and -0.25 (95% CI: -0.42, -0.08), respectively. In joint analyses of LCAT DNA methylation and plasma vitamin and carotenoid concentrations, the inverse association between increased LCAT DNA methylation and AMD risk was more pronounced among participants who had a lower concentration of plasma retinol and ß-cryptoxanthin. These findings highlight the importance of comprehensively assessing LCAT DNA methylation and increasing vitamin and carotenoid status for the prevention of AMD.

Two Cases of Acquired High-Density Lipoprotein Deficiency with Immunoglobulin G4-Related Lecithin-Cholesterol Acyltransferase Autoantibody.

Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) plays a significant role in the progression from premature to mature high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in circulation. Consequently, primary or secondary LCAT deletion or reduction naturally results in low serum HDL cholesterol levels. Recently, rare cases of acquired HDL deficiency with LCAT autoantibodies have been reported, mainly from Japan, where LCAT autoantibodies of immunoglobulin G (IgG) caused the HDL deficiency. Here to our knowledge, we report for the first time two cases of acquired HDL deficiency caused by IgG4 linked LCAT autoantibodies with or without a high serum IgG4 level. Furthermore, these cases can extend to a new concept of "IgG4 autoimmune disease" from the viewpoint of verifying the serum autoantibody and/or renal histopathology.

Novel therapeutic opportunities for familial lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase deficiency: promises and challenges.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Genetic lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) deficiency is a rare, inherited, recessive disease, which manifests as two different syndromes: Familial LCAT deficiency (FLD) and Fish-eye disease (FED), characterized by low HDL-C and corneal opacity. FLD patients also develop anaemia and renal disease. There is currently no therapy for FLD, but novel therapeutics are at different stages of development. Here, we summarize the most recent advances and the opportunities for and barriers to the further development of such therapies. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent publications highlight the heterogeneous phenotype of FLD and the uncertainty over the natural history of disease and the factors contributing to disease progression. Therapies that restore LCAT function (protein and gene replacement therapies and LCAT activators) showed promising effects on markers of LCAT activity. Although they do not restore LCAT function, HDL mimetics may slow renal disease progression. SUMMARY: The further development of novel therapeutics requires the identification of efficacy endpoints, which include quantitative biomarkers of disease progression. Because of the heterogeneity of renal disease progression among FLD individuals, future treatments for FLD will have to be tailored based on the specific clinical characteristics of the patient. Extensive studies of the natural history and biomarkers of the disease will be required to achieve this goal.

Mechanistic Insights into the Activation of Lecithin-Cholesterol Acyltransferase in Therapeutic Nanodiscs Composed of Apolipoprotein A-I Mimetic Peptides and Phospholipids.

The mechanistic details behind the activation of lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) by apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) and its mimetic peptides are still enigmatic. Resolving the fundamental principles behind LCAT activation will facilitate the design of advanced HDL-mimetic therapeutic nanodiscs for LCAT deficiencies and coronary heart disease and for several targeted drug delivery applications. Here, we have combined coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations with complementary experiments to gain mechanistic insight into how apoA-Imimetic peptide 22A and its variants tune LCAT activity in peptide-lipid nanodiscs. Our results highlight that peptide 22A forms transient antiparallel dimers in the rim of nanodiscs. The dimerization tendency considerably decreases with the removal of C-terminal lysine K22, which has also been shown to reduce the cholesterol esterification activity of LCAT. In addition, our simulations revealed that LCAT prefers to localize to the rim of nanodiscs in a manner that shields the membrane-binding domain (MBD), αA-αA', and the lid amino acids from the water phase, following previous experimental evidence. Meanwhile, the location and conformation of LCAT in the rim of nanodiscs are spatially more restricted when the active site covering the lid of LCAT is in the open form. The average location and spatial dimensions of LCAT in its open form were highly compatible with the electron microscopy images. All peptide 22A variants studied here had a specific interaction site in the open LCAT structure flanked by the lid and MBD domain. The bound peptides showed different tendencies to form antiparallel dimers and, interestingly, the temporal binding site occupancies of the peptide variants affected their in vitro ability to promote LCAT-mediated cholesterol esterification.

Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Phase 2b Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of Recombinant Human Lecithin Cholesterol Acyltransferase in Acute ST-Segment-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: Results of REAL-TIMI 63B.

BACKGROUND: High-density lipoprotein plays a key role in reverse cholesterol transport. In addition, high-density lipoprotein particles may be cardioprotective and reduce infarct size in the setting of myocardial injury. Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase is a rate-limiting enzyme in reverse cholesterol transport. MEDI6012 is a recombinant human lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase that increases high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Administration of lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase has the potential to reduce infarct size and regress coronary plaque in acute ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. METHODS: REAL-TIMI 63B (A Randomized, Placebo­controlled Phase 2b Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of MEDI6012 in Acute ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction) was a phase 2B multinational, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. Patients with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction within 6 hours of symptom onset and planned for percutaneous intervention were randomly assigned 2:1 to MEDI6012 (2- or 6-dose regimen) or placebo and followed for 12 weeks. The primary outcome was infarct size as a percentage of left ventricular mass by cardiac MRI at 10 to 12 weeks, with the primary analysis in patients with TIMI Flow Grade 0 to 1 before percutaneous intervention who received at least 2 doses of MEDI6012. The secondary outcome was change in noncalcified plaque volume on coronary computed tomographic angiography from baseline to 10 to 12 weeks with the primary analysis in patients who received all 6 doses of MEDI6012. RESULTS: A total of 593 patients were randomly assigned. Patients were a median of 62 years old, 77.9% male, and 95.8% statin naive. Median time from symptom onset to randomization was 146 (interquartile range [IQR], 103-221) minutes and from hospitalization to randomization was 12.7 (IQR, 6.6-24.0) minutes, and the first dose of drug was administered a median of 8 (IQR, 3-13) minutes before percutaneous intervention. The index myocardial infarction was anterior in 69.6% and TIMI Flow Grade 0 to 1 in 65.1% of patients. At 12 weeks, infarct size did not differ between treatment groups (MEDI6012: 9.71%, IQR 4.79-16.38; placebo: 10.48%, [IQR, 4.92-16.61], 1-sided P=0.79. There was also no difference in noncalcified plaque volume (geometric mean ratio, 0.96 [95% CI, NA-1.10], 1-sided P=0.30). There was no significant difference in treatment emergent serious adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of MEDI6012 in patients with acute ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction did not result in a significant reduction in infarct size or noncalcified plaque volume at 12 weeks. MEDI6012 was well tolerated with no excess in overall serious adverse events. REGISTRATION: URL: https://www. CLINICALTRIALS: gov; Unique identifier: NCT03578809.

A novel homozygous frameshift mutation in the APOA1 gene associated with marked high-density lipoprotein deficiency.

The proband was a 53-year-old Japanese woman. Despite having no atherosclerotic vascular lesions on a physiological examination, markedly decreased levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) were always noted at her annual medical checkup. She also had corneal opacities but neither xanthoma nor tonsillar hypertrophy. A biochemical examination showed decreased levels of both apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) (<5 mg/dL) and lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) activity. Her brother and son also had low concentrations of HDL-cholesterol, suggesting the presence of a genetic abnormality. Therefore, a sequence analysis of the genes for ABCA1, LCAT and apoA-I proteins was performed in the proband. The analysis of the APOA1 gene revealed a novel homozygous two-nucleotide deletion in exon 4 (c.614_615delTC), which causes a frameshift after residue 205 of the apoA-I protein (p.Leu205fs). Since no mutation has been found in the ABCA1 or LCAT gene, functional abnormalities of the carboxyl-terminal region of the apoA-I protein in lipid binding might have caused the low HDL-cholesterol levels and decreased LCAT activity, possibly associated with corneal opacities but not premature CAD, in the patient.

Lipidomic Approaches to Study HDL Metabolism in Patients with Central Obesity Diagnosed with Metabolic Syndrome.

The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors characterised by central obesity, atherogenic dyslipidaemia, and changes in the circulating lipidome; the underlying mechanisms that lead to this lipid remodelling have only been partially elucidated. This study used an integrated "omics" approach (untargeted whole serum lipidomics, targeted proteomics, and lipoprotein lipidomics) to study lipoprotein remodelling and HDL composition in subjects with central obesity diagnosed with MetS (vs. controls). Compared with healthy subjects, MetS patients showed higher free fatty acids, diglycerides, phosphatidylcholines, and triglycerides, particularly those enriched in products of de novo lipogenesis. On the other hand, the "lysophosphatidylcholines to phosphatidylcholines" and "cholesteryl ester to free cholesterol" ratios were reduced, pointing to a lower activity of lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) in MetS; LCAT activity (directly measured and predicted by lipidomic ratios) was positively correlated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and negatively correlated with body mass index (BMI) and insulin resistance. Moreover, many phosphatidylcholines and sphingomyelins were significantly lower in the HDL of MetS patients and strongly correlated with BMI and clinical metabolic parameters. These results suggest that MetS is associated with an impairment of phospholipid metabolism in HDL, partially led by LCAT, and associated with obesity and underlying insulin resistance. This study proposes a candidate strategy to use integrated "omics" approaches to gain mechanistic insights into lipoprotein remodelling, thus deepening the knowledge regarding the molecular basis of the association between MetS and atherosclerosis.

Plasma FA composition in familial LCAT deficiency indicates SOAT2-derived cholesteryl ester formation in humans.

Mutations in the LCAT gene cause familial LCAT deficiency (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ID: #245900), a very rare metabolic disorder. LCAT is the only enzyme able to esterify cholesterol in plasma, whereas sterol O-acyltransferases 1 and 2 are the enzymes esterifying cellular cholesterol in cells. Despite the complete lack of LCAT activity, patients with familial LCAT deficiency exhibit circulating cholesteryl esters (CEs) in apoB-containing lipoproteins. To analyze the origin of these CEs, we investigated 24 carriers of LCAT deficiency in this observational study. We found that CE plasma levels were significantly reduced and highly variable among carriers of two mutant LCAT alleles (22.5 [4.0-37.8] mg/dl) and slightly reduced in heterozygotes (218 [153-234] mg/dl). FA distribution in CE (CEFA) was evaluated in whole plasma and VLDL in a subgroup of the enrolled subjects. We found enrichment of C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1 species and a depletion in C18:2 and C20:4 species in the plasma of carriers of two mutant LCAT alleles. No changes were observed in heterozygotes. Furthermore, plasma triglyceride-FA distribution was remarkably similar between carriers of LCAT deficiency and controls. CEFA distribution in VLDL essentially recapitulated that of plasma, being mainly enriched in C16:0 and C18:1, while depleted in C18:2 and C20:4. Finally, after fat loading, chylomicrons of carriers of two mutant LCAT alleles showed CEs containing mainly saturated FAs. This study of CEFA composition in a large cohort of carriers of LCAT deficiency shows that in the absence of LCAT-derived CEs, CEs present in apoB-containing lipoproteins are derived from hepatic and intestinal sterol O-acyltransferase 2.

The impact of probiotic yogurt versus ordinary yogurt on serum sTWEAK, sCD163, ADMA, LCAT and BUN in patients with chronic heart failure: a randomized, triple-blind, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: To date, no study has investigated the effects of probiotic yogurt as a functional food in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF). Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the impact of probiotic yogurt versus ordinary yogurt on inflammatory, endothelial, lipid and renal indices in CHF patients. In this randomized, triple-blind clinical trial, 90 patients with CHF were randomly allocated into two groups to take either probiotic or ordinary yogurt for 10 weeks. Serum levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (sTWEAK), soluble cluster of differentiation 163 (sCD163), asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), and lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) were measured by using ELISA kits, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) was measured by calorimetry method at baseline and at the end of trial. The P-value <0.05 was defined as statistically significant. RESULTS: Seventy-eight patients completed the study. At the end of the intervention, the levels of sTWEAK in both groups increased significantly, and this increase was greater in the probiotic yogurt group [691.84 (335.60, 866.95)] compared to control group [581.96 (444.99, 929.40)], and the difference between the groups was statistically significant after adjusting for confounders (P-value: 0.257, adjusted P-value: 0.038). However, no significant differences were found between the groups in the cases of other study indices. CONCLUSION: Probiotic yogurt may be useful for improving the inflammatory status in patients with CHF through increasing sTWEAK levels, however, further studies are needed in this area. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Reverse cholesterol transport and hepatic osteodystrophy.

In this issue of Cell Metabolism, Lu et al. show that chronic liver disease increases the expression and activity of PP2Ac, a phosphatase that downregulates the excretion of lecithin-cholesterol aceyltransferase (LCAT). LCAT, a liver-derived enzyme, protects bone and prevents bone loss, and its lowered levels in progressive liver injury cause hepatic osteodystrophy (HOD) and worsen liver fibrosis. These discoveries open the possibility that recombinant LCAT may be a treatment for both HOD and liver fibrosis.

Defects in a liver-bone axis contribute to hepatic osteodystrophy disease progression.

Hepatic osteodystrophy (HOD) is a metabolic bone disease that is often associated with chronic liver disease and is marked by bone loss. Here, we demonstrate that hepatic expression of the phosphatase PP2Acα is upregulated during HOD, leading to the downregulation of expression of the hepatokine lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT). Loss of LCAT function markedly exacerbates the bone loss phenotype of HOD in mice. In addition, we found that alterations in cholesterol levels are involved in the regulation of osteoblast and osteoclast activities. We also found that LCAT improves liver function and relieves liver fibrosis in the mouse HOD model by promoting reversal of cholesterol transport from the bone to the liver. In summary, defects in a liver-bone axis occur during HOD that can be targeted to ameliorate disease progression.

HDL maturation and remodelling.

Cholesterol in the circulation is mostly transported in an esterified form as a component of lipoproteins. The majority of these cholesteryl esters are produced in nascent, discoidal high density lipoproteins (HDLs) by the enzyme, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT). Discoidal HDLs are discrete populations of particles that consist of a phospholipid bilayer, the hydrophobic acyl chains of which are shielded from the aqueous environment by apolipoproteins that also confer water solubility on the particles. The progressive LCAT-mediated accumulation of cholesteryl esters in discoidal HDLs generates the spherical HDLs that predominate in normal human plasma. Spherical HDLs contain a core of water insoluble, neutral lipids (cholesteryl esters and triglycerides) that is surrounded by a surface monolayer of phospholipids with which apolipoproteins associate. Although spherical HDLs all have the same basic structure, they are extremely diverse in size, composition, and function. This review is concerned with how the biogenesis of discoidal and spherical HDLs is regulated and the mechanistic basis of their size and compositional heterogeneity. Current understanding of the impact of this heterogeneity on the therapeutic potential of HDLs of varying size and composition is also addressed in the context of several disease states.

The expanding role of lyso-phosphatidylcholine acyltransferase-3 (LPCAT3), a phospholipid remodeling enzyme, in health and disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The turnover of fatty acids (FAs) at the sn-2 position of phospholipids is mediated by the reciprocal actions of phospholipases A2 and lyso-PL acyltransferases (LPLAT). LPCAT3, a major LPLAT isoform, exhibits a strong specificity for polyunsaturated FAs s (PUFAs). Although the enzyme was originally studied in the context of cardiometabolism, recent investigations have shed light on the role of LPCAT3 in other tissues such as skeletal muscle and in unexpected biological processes such as cell death and oncogenesis. RECENT FINDINGS: The three-dimensional structure of LPCAT3 has been elucidated allowing further understanding of the mechanism of the acylation reaction as well as the substrate specificity of the enzyme. In skeletal muscle, LPCAT3-mediated phospholipid remodeling modulates membrane domain clustering and insulin signalingLPCAT3 plays an important role in the process of ferroptosis by modulating the PUFA content of phospholipids and possibly of plasmalogens.In tumor-associated macrophages, LPCAT3 can prevent ER stress induced by the tumor microenvironment and may equally modulate antitumor immunity. SUMMARY: LPCAT3 is an attractive therapeutic target in the cardiometabolic disorders. Nevertheless, the involvement of LPCAT3 in processes such as cell death and oncogenesis demands caution with respect to the potential deleterious effects of enzyme modulation.

LCAT- targeted therapies: Progress, failures and future.

Lecithin: cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) is the only enzyme in plasma which is able to esterify cholesterol and boost cholesterol esterify with phospholipid-derived acyl chains. In order to better understand the progress of LCAT research, it is always inescapable that it is linked to high-density lipoprotein (HDL) metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). Because LCAT plays a central role in HDL metabolism and RCT, many animal studies and clinical studies are currently aimed at improving plasma lipid metabolism by increasing LCAT activity in order to find better treatment options for familial LCAT deficiency (FLD), fish eye disease (FED), and cardiovascular disease. Recombinant human LCAT (rhLCAT) injections, cells and gene therapy, and small molecule activators have been carried out with promising results. Recently rhLCAT therapies have entered clinical phase II trials with good prospects. In this review, we discuss the diseases associated with LCAT and therapies that use LCAT as a target hoping to find out whether LCAT can be an effective therapeutic target for coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Also, probing the mechanism of action of LCAT may help better understand the heterogeneity of HDL and the action mechanism of dynamic lipoprotein particles.

Molecular mechanisms for ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux.

The maintenance of cellular cholesterol homeostasis is essential for normal cell function and viability. Excessive cholesterol accumulation is detrimental to cells and serves as the molecular basis of many diseases, such as atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes mellitus. The peripheral cells do not have the ability to degrade cholesterol. Cholesterol efflux is therefore the only pathway to eliminate excessive cholesterol from these cells. This process is predominantly mediated by ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), an integral membrane protein. ABCA1 is known to transfer intracellular free cholesterol and phospholipids to apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) for generating nascent high-density lipoprotein (nHDL) particles. nHDL can accept more free cholesterol from peripheral cells. Free cholesterol is then converted to cholesteryl ester by lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase to form mature HDL. HDL-bound cholesterol enters the liver for biliary secretion and fecal excretion. Although how cholesterol is transported by ABCA1 to apoA-I remains incompletely understood, nine models have been proposed to explain this effect. In this review, we focus on the current view of the mechanisms underlying ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux to provide an important framework for future investigation and lipid-lowering therapy.

Apolipoprotein A1-Related Proteins and Reverse Cholesterol Transport in Antiatherosclerosis Therapy: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives.

Hyperlipidemia characterized by abnormal deposition of cholesterol in arteries can cause atherosclerosis and coronary artery occlusion, leading to atherosclerotic coronary heart disease. The body prevents atherosclerosis by reverse cholesterol transport to mobilize and excrete cholesterol and other lipids. Apolipoprotein A1, the major component of high-density lipoprotein, plays a key role in reverse cholesterol transport. Here, we reviewed the role of apolipoprotein A1-targeting molecules in antiatherosclerosis therapy, in particular ATP-binding cassette transporter A1, lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase, and scavenger receptor class B type 1.

Conformational flexibility of apolipoprotein A-I amino- and carboxy-termini is necessary for lipid binding but not cholesterol efflux.

Because of its critical role in HDL formation, significant efforts have been devoted to studying apolipoprotein A-I (APOA1) structural transitions in response to lipid binding. To assess the requirements for the conformational freedom of its termini during HDL particle formation, we generated three dimeric APOA1 molecules with their termini covalently joined in different combinations. The dimeric (d)-APOA1C-N mutant coupled the C-terminus of one APOA1 molecule to the N-terminus of a second with a short alanine linker, whereas the d-APOA1C-C and d-APOA1N-N mutants coupled the C-termini and the N-termini of two APOA1 molecules, respectively, using introduced cysteine residues to form disulfide linkages. We then tested the ability of these constructs to generate reconstituted HDL by detergent-assisted and spontaneous phospholipid microsolubilization methods. Using cholate dialysis, we demonstrate WT and all APOA1 mutants generated reconstituted HDL particles of similar sizes, morphologies, compositions, and abilities to activate lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase. Unlike WT, however, the mutants were incapable of spontaneously solubilizing short chain phospholipids into discoidal particles. We found lipid-free d-APOA1C-N and d-APOA1N-N retained most of WT APOA1's ability to promote cholesterol efflux via the ATP binding cassette transporter A1, whereas d-APOA1C-C exhibited impaired cholesterol efflux. Our data support the double belt model for a lipid-bound APOA1 structure in nascent HDL particles and refute other postulated arrangements like the "double super helix." Furthermore, we conclude the conformational freedom of both the N- and C-termini of APOA1 is important in spontaneous microsolubilization of bulk phospholipid but is not critical for ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux.

A systematic review of the natural history and biomarkers of primary lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase deficiency.

Syndromes associated with LCAT deficiency, a rare autosomal recessive condition, include fish-eye disease (FED) and familial LCAT deficiency (FLD). FLD is more severe and characterized by early and progressive chronic kidney disease (CKD). No treatment is currently available for FLD, but novel therapeutics are under development. Furthermore, although biomarkers of LCAT deficiency have been identified, their suitability to monitor disease progression and therapeutic efficacy is unclear, as little data exist on the rate of progression of renal disease. Here, we systematically review observational studies of FLD, FED, and heterozygous subjects, which summarize available evidence on the natural history and biomarkers of LCAT deficiency, in order to guide the development of novel therapeutics. We identified 146 FLD and 53 FED patients from 219 publications, showing that both syndromes are characterized by early corneal opacity and markedly reduced HDL-C levels. Proteinuria/hematuria were the first signs of renal impairment in FLD, followed by rapid decline of renal function. Furthermore, LCAT activity toward endogenous substrates and the percentage of circulating esterified cholesterol (EC%) were the best discriminators between these two syndromes. In FLD, higher levels of total, non-HDL, and unesterified cholesterol were associated with severe CKD. We reveal a nonlinear association between LCAT activity and EC% levels, in which subnormal levels of LCAT activity were associated with normal EC%. This review provides the first step toward the identification of disease biomarkers to be used in clinical trials and suggests that restoring LCAT activity to subnormal levels may be sufficient to prevent renal disease progression.

Mimic Lipoproteins Responsive to Intratumoral pH and Allosteric Enzyme for Efficient Tumor Therapy.

Discoid-reconstituted high-density lipoprotein (d-rHDL) is advantageous for tumor-targeted drug delivery due to its small size, long circulation, and efficient internalization into cancer cells. Nevertheless, an allosteric reaction catalyzed by serum lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) may cause drug leakage from d-rHDL and reduce its targeting efficiency. Conversely, similar "structural weakening" catalyzed by acyl-coenzyme A-cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) inside tumor cells can stimulate precise intracellular drug release. Therefore, we synthesized and characterized a pH-sensitive n-butyraldehyde bi-cholesterol (BCC) to substitute for cholesterol in the d-rHDL particle, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as the targeting agent. This dual pH- and ACAT-sensitive d-rHDL (d-d-rHDL) was small with a disk-like appearance. Morphological transformation observation, in vitro release assays, and differences in internalization upon LCAT treatment confirmed that BCC effectively inhibited the remodeling behavior and enhanced the tumor-targeting efficiency. The accumulation of d-d-rHDL in HepG2 cells was significantly higher than that in LO2 cells, and accumulation was inhibited by free BSA. The pH sensitivity was verified, and d-d-rHDL achieved efficient drug release in vitro and inside tumor cells after exposure to acidic conditions and ACAT. Confocal laser scanning microscopy demonstrated that d-d-rHDL escaped from lysosomes and became distributed evenly throughout cells. Moreover, in vivo imaging assays in a tumor-bearing mouse model demonstrated tumor-targeting properties of d-d-rHDL, and paclitaxel-loaded d-d-rHDL showed strong anticancer activity in these mice. This dual-sensitive d-d-rHDL thus combines structural stability in plasma and an intracellular pH/ACAT-triggered drug release to facilitate inhibition of tumor growth.

A novel pathogenic variant in LCAT causing FLD. A case report.

BACKGROUND: Fish-eye disease (FED) is due to a partial deficiency in LCAT activity. Nevertheless, Familial lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase deficiency (FLD), also called Norum disease, appears when the deficiency is complete. They are both rare genetic disorders inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. Clinical signs include decreased circulating HDL cholesterol and dense corneal opacity. Kidney injuries also affect patients suffering from FLD. The diagnosis of FLD is based on the presence of characteristic signs and symptoms and confirmed by genetic testing. CASE PRESENTATION: We present a case of a 63-year-old man showing an altered lipid profile with low HDL cholesterol, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and corneal disorders. He was referred to genetic counseling in order to discard genetic LCAT deficiency due to decreased visual acuity caused by corneal opacity. A massive DNA sequencing was conducted using a multigene panel associated with lipid metabolism disturbances. RESULTS AND GENETIC FINDINGS: Two likely pathogenic variants in LCAT were identified and later confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Both (c.491 G > A and c.496 G > A) were missense variants that originated an amino acid substitution (164Arginine for Histidine and 166Alanine for Threonine, respectively) modifying the protein sequence and its 3D structure. CONCLUSIONS: FLD and FED sharing common biochemical features, and the existence of other diseases with similar clinical profiles underline the need for a timely differential diagnosis aiming to address patients to preventive programs and future available therapies. This case, added to the reduced number of publications previously reported regarding FLD and FED, contributes to better understanding the genetic characteristics, clinical features, and diagnosis of these syndromes.